Assignment:  Essay #1

Theories of Motivation

Advanced Organization Theory and Inquiry

EDAD 8043

By

Allen Mooneyhan

Cohort IX

Arkansas State University- Newport

Assistant Professor

Health & Physical Education

Dr. Dan Cline

Center for Excellence in Education

Arkansas State University

At first glance, the vast amount of information regarding the different motivation theories and how they may be applied seems almost confusing.  Several theories attempt to explain why people may react in certain ways given a choice of possible outcomes.  Motivation is a very complex concept and is one of the many skills expected of strong leaders.  Motivation is defined as the desire and will to do something (Hoeger & Hoeger, 1999).  In this essay, I will attempt to organize the different theories of motivation into an understandable framework. 

Expectancy theory will be discussed and explained as will goal theory and Management by Objective.  In addition individual differences in human intelligence will be discussed along with how these differences relate to the Western Electric Studies and the understanding of motivation.  Locus of control will be addressed including how an internal or external locus of control effects the actions of people.  Several patterns of motivation will be presented as well as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.  Finally, two non-behaviorist motivation theories will be explored dealing with the cognitive and humanistic perspectives.  It is hoped that this essay can be used to pull together the many aspects of motivation into a work that may provide a basic understanding of the different theories of motivation.

Expectancy Theory

Fudge and Schlacter (1999) state that "Expectancy Theory is a process theory of motivation, according to which motivation is a function of individuals' perceptions of their environment and the expectations they form based on these perceptions."  Expectancy theory was developed by Victor Vroom in 1964 which built on the previous work of Tolman in 1932.  Fudge and Schlacter (1999) explore this theory by citing that Expectancy Theory identifies three factors that play an interactive role in motivation.  These factors are effort-performance expectancy, performance-outcome expectancy or instrumentality, and valence.  Each of these factors is explained below (Fudge & Schlacter, 1999).

Effort-performance expectancy is based on the individual's perception that effort is correlated positively with levels of performance.  This means that an individual believes he or she can improve performance simply by putting more effort into that performance.  This individual is said to have a high expectancy theory rather than a low expectancy theory.

Performance-outcome expectancy is also called instrumentality.  This deals with a person's expectations that the rewards he or she will receive are closely tied to his or her level of performance.  An example of one who would probably have high instrumentality is a salesman who is paid solely on commission.  Since the amount of reward is based on the outcome of performance, this individual should be motivated to perform at higher levels.

Valance is the degree to which an individual values a particular reward.  This premise indicates that the more one values the reward received for specific effort, the more motivated one will be to perform the effort necessary to receive that reward.  Therefore, if the reward has higher value to an individual, that reward will be more motivating to that individual. 

Fudge and Schlacter (1999) indicate that Expectancy Theory has become widely accepted in terms of validity.  They suggest that the "virtue of Expectancy Theory is that each of its components has been experimentally confirmed as having a positive influence on motivation."  Numerous studies are cited in support of this claim.

Goal Theory

Goal Theory is concerned with the perception and pursuit of goals not only with immediate objectives but with larger concepts of what it means to succeed in school (Kaplan & Maehr, 1999).  These authors also state that two types of goals have received extensive attention:  task goals and ego goals.  Good and Brophy (1990) define task involvement as a desire to master a task in order to develop one's ability.  They define ego goals as a desire to demonstrate successful performance.  Examples of task goals are "learning goals" and "mastery goals" which put the emphasis on the learning of content by the individual.  Examples of ego goals are "performance goals" and "ability goals" which put the emphasis on the performance and activities of the learner.

Management by Objective (MBO) is probably the most recognized motivation technique dealing with goal theory.  In explaining MBO, Kowalski (1984) lists the phases of the system followed by areas which are prone to flaw potentiality.  MBO incorporates a five-phase process involving finding the objective, setting the objective, validating the objective, implementing the objective, and controlling and reporting the status of the objective.  Areas of concern and potential flaws include the effects of environmental interference, goal conflicts, reward systems, and goal selection.

Environmental interference addresses the practice of confining goal setting to managerial staff rather than allowing those involved in the daily processes to participate.  Goal conflict speaks to the concern that arises when the objectives of the organization, the personal goals, and the professional goals do not coincide with each other.  Reward system refers to the degree to which the system of rewards can be manipulated to provide additional incentive to improve.  Goal selection deals with the tendency to work only with goals that are not so complex as to prove difficult to quantify.  Kowalski (1984) concludes by indicating that although MBO may appear simple, one should approach a decision to use the system cautiously.

Individual Differences in Human Intelligences

Different people have different levels of arousal when exposed to the same things.  According to Owens (1998), arousal is an internal aspect of self, involving emotional and cognitive processes and is characteristic of what is in line with the personality of the individual.  Individuals bring differing characteristics together to form a dynamic interaction of group process.  According to Grabe and Grabe (1998) "Motivation can be highly individualized".  This means that what motivates one person may have little or no effect on another.  One of the ways in which people differ is in their intelligence.  Howard Gardner contributed to the explanation of human thought and behavior through giving us a new way to think about intelligence (Owens, 1998).  Gardner described eight dimensions of intelligence:  Linguistic intelligence, Logical-mathematical intelligence, Musical intelligence, Spatial intelligence, Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, Intrapersonal intelligence, Interpersonal intelligence, and Naturalistic intelligence (Morrison, 2000).  Linguistic intelligence is the ability to understand words and how their combination produces useful language.  Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to see patterns and relationships in unrelated events.  Musical intelligence includes the ability to discern pitch, melody, tone, rhythm, and other musical symbolism.  Spatial intelligence is having the capacity to perceive and think in terms of visual qualities.  Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves the ability to control one's bodily movements as well as to handle objects proficiently.  Intrapersonal intelligence concerns the ability to understand one's inner self including feelings and aspirations.  Interpersonal intelligence involves the ability to realize distinctions among individuals and among their moods and temperaments.  Naturalistic intelligence designates one's ability to discriminate among living things such as plants and animals as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world such as clouds.  Gardner indicates that we should consider that people bring different resources and that different dimensions of intelligences are evident within each of us.

In order to gain a greater understanding of these intelligences and other intrigues of motivation, one should consider the studies based on Fredric Taylor's Scientific Management.  According to Morgan (1997), Taylor advocated the use of time-and-motion study.  This was a way to study how workers accomplished tasks in order to simplify the process making it more time-efficient.  Owens (1998) explains the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company that began in 1924.  In "the Illumination Studies", lights were changed periodically in an attempt to determine the proper illumination for highest productivity.  Researchers ultimately found that production went up based on the workers' perceptions of illumination.  They performed the way it was perceived by them that they were expected to perform.  For example, when light bulbs were changed production increased, although, unknowns to the workers, the bulbs were replaced with identical bulbs.  This study supports the implication that an individual's internal motivation to perform affects production.  This was the case in spite of changing conditions and a perceived change in conditions.  This study and others imply that the degree to which one performs may also be indicative of the degree to which he or she perceives to have a voice in the decisions of the process. 

Locus of Control

        Some "catch phrases" in dealing with motivation include "intrinsic motivation" and "extrinsic motivation".  These phrases deal with the degree to which one has an internal or external locus of control.  According to Hoeger and Hoeger (1999), locus of control is a concept examining the extent to which an individual believes he or she can influence the external environment.  One who believes he or she has control of events in his or her life is said to have an internal locus of control or to be intrinsically motivated.  Good and Brophy (1990) state that humans have a natural drive to fulfill their potential Conversely, one who believes he or she has little control over what happens and that it is primarily a result of chance is said to have an external locus of control or to be extrinsically motivated.  According to Good and Brophy (1990), "Strategies for extrinsic motivation links successful task performance with delivery of consequences".  Furthermore, people are probably neither extrinsically nor intrinsically motivated exclusively but fall somewhere along a continuum between an internal and an external locus of control.

Patterns of Motivation

        According to Owens (1998) a body of literature has been produced on motivation that is both staggering in scope and illuminating.  Motivation deals with explanations of why people do the things they do.  He also cites three motivational patterns that are generally agreed upon by scholars as direction in making choices, persistence, and intensity.

The first pattern, direction in making choices, deals with what option is chosen when individuals are confronted with different possible alternatives.  When a person chooses to behave in a particular way when given several options, it speaks to the motivation of that individual.  Furthermore, something one person is motivated to do may not hold enough value to direct another's attention toward it.

The second pattern, persistence, is an indicator of the motivation of an individual.  For example, one individual may dedicate a huge amount of time to a task which another will spend a relatively short amount of time on.  Persistence may also be indicated when a person is willing to return to a task again and again.

The third pattern, intensity, speaks of the intensity with which one attends to doing something.  For example, one instructor may work enthusiastically, concentrating more thoroughly on a desired outcome whereas another instructor may put in the same amount of time but lack the desire to implement enthusiasm and concentration into the process.

Psychological Types

        Carl Jung believed he could sort people into various categories according to types (Owens, 1998).  He theorized the existence of three basic dimensions of human personality that he called psychological types.  These types indicate ways in which people see their environment in terms of the extent to which people are introverted or extraverted, sensing or intuitive, and thinking or feeling.

        Jung indicated that the extraverted and the introverted were actually attitudes that referred to ways individuals direct psychic energy.  Those who have extraverted attitudes like external interaction.  They like to communicate with others and gravitate to others.  Those who have introverted attitudes dislike being in socially interactive settings and may prefer being alone.

        Sensation and intuition are labeled "nonrational" functions.  These functions receive and process information without evaluating it.  Sensation focuses on tangible realities in the present that can be documented.  Intuition, however, is perception through the unconscious in which the person involved may not even know the basis for the perception.

        The "rational" functions are thinking and feeling and involve the evaluation of information.  Thinking utilizes reasoning, logic, and analysis to evaluate information whereas feelings employ empathy or personal values to evaluate.  The impact a judgement will have upon others is important to feeling.

        Myers and Briggs used these dimensions to create the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and added a forth dimension, perceiving-judging (Owens, 1998).  This dimension involved how people dealt with the world around them.  Perceiving is the use of either sensing or intuition to make sense of the environment.  Judging is the use of either thinking or feeling in interactions with the environment.

        According to Owens (1998), Myers and Briggs created a simple questionnaire to determine the psychological type of individuals.  This Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) used the previously described four behavioral dimensions to categorize people based on how they deal with the world around them.  This test is useful both as a self-assessment and as a means of understanding the differences in people and the possibilities of how those differences impact decisions and motivation.

Non-behaviorist Motivation Theories

        Two main facets of motivational thought exist outside the behaviorist theories:  the cognitive perspective and the humanistic perspective (Owens, 1998).  The cognitive perspective is based on the premise that people have an innate inner drive to understand, make sense of, and gain control of their lives.  The cognitive view John Atkinson dealt with was achievement motivation (Owens, 1998).  He believed that every individual is driven by two learned characteristics:  the desire to achieve success and the desire to avoid failure.  According to Good and Brophy (1990) those who commit to pursuing goals rather than concentrating on trying to avoid failure are more effective.  The cognitive view of McClelland involved the Achieving Society in which the objective was to transform a society into a highly motivated society.  This would be done through placing high value on the orientation to achievement and teaching this value.

        The human perspective supports the tenet that personal needs to develop, cultivate self-esteem, and maintain satisfying relationships are highly motivating drives (Owens, 1998).  The human perspective is also interested in how people feel about their perceptions (Good & Brophy, 1990).  Therefore, this perspective is not only interested in what perceptions are but also in what people's emotions are regarding those perceptions.  Furthermore, one remains continuously in the process of becoming.  For example, Abraham Maslow studied the motivation patterns shown by people as they lived.  He believed people are driven internally to reach their full potential for growth (Owens, 1998).  Maslow's work incorporated a pattern of growth beginning with physical needs, continuing through safety needs, then love needs, then esteem needs, and finally to needs for self-actualization (Good & Brophy, 1990).

Conclusion

        The initial intent of this essay was to develop an understanding of motivation and explain the different theories revolving around the concept of motivation.  It was not until after a thorough review of the topic that I began to realize and appreciate the complexity and vastness of this topic.  It was then that I decided to attempt to develop a framework that would organize the many aspects of motivation into a concise piece that briefly explains each facet.  An attempt was made to define and explain motivation and introduce the theories involved.

        These theories include Expectancy Theory, Goal Theory, how individual differences and human intelligences affect motivation, internal and external locus of control, specific patterns of motivation, four psychological types, and the non-behaviorist theories of motivation. For me, this became a "learning paper" and it is my hope that it can provide helpful insight into the complexity of motivation as well as a brief summary of each of the many areas of motivation.

References

   Fudge, R. S. &. Schlacter, J. L. (1999).  Motivating Employees to Act Ethically:  An Expectancy Theory Approach. Journal of Business Ethics. 18 (3), 295-304.

   Good, T. L. & Brophy, J. E. (1990).  Educational Psychology A Realistic Approach.  White Plains, NY: Longman. Fourth Edition.

   Grabe, M. & Grabe, C. Integrating Technology for Meaningful Learning. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Second Edition.

   Hoeger, W. W. & Hoeger, S. A. (1999). Principles & Labs For Physical Fitness.  Englewood, CO: Morton Publishing Company. Second Edition.

   Kaplan, A. & Martin, L. M. (1999).  Enhancing the Motivation of African American Students:  An Achievement Goal Theory Perspective. The Journal of Negro Education. 68 (1), 23-41.

   Kowalski, T. J. (1994).  The Debilities of MBO in Educational Organizations.  NASSP Bulletin. 68 (472), 119-123.

   Morgan, G. (1997). Images of organization. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Second Edition.

   Morrison, G. S. (2000). Fundamentals of Early Childhood Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Second Edition.

   Owens, R. (1998). Organizational behavior in education. Boston: Alyn & Bacon. Sixth Edition.

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